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Architecture

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Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with Construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, Planning, Design, and constructing Buildings or other Structures. The term comes from Latin architectura; from Ancient Greek ἀρχιτέκτων (arkhitéktōn), meaning ‘chief creator’.

Architectural works are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical Civilizations are commonly identified through their surviving architectural achievements. The practice began in the Prehistoric Era as an expression of Culture by civilizations on all continents.

Texts on architecture have been written since ancient times. The earliest surviving text is the 1st-century BC treatise De architectura by Roman architect Vitruvius, who emphasized firmitas, utilitas, and venustas (durability, utility, and beauty). Leon Battista Alberti later saw beauty as an objective quality found in proportions. Nineteenth-century architect Louis Sullivan declared that “form follows function,” a concept replacing classical utility and expanding to include aesthetic, psychological, and cultural dimensions. The idea of Sustainable Architecture was introduced in the late 20th century.

Definitions

Architecture can mean:

  • A general term for buildings and other physical structures.

  • The art and science of designing buildings and some nonbuilding structures (“architectonics”).

  • The style and method of construction of buildings and other structures.

  • A coherent or unifying form or structure.

  • The knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.

  • The design activity of the architect, from the macro-level (Urban Design, Landscape Architecture) to the micro-level (details and furniture).

  • The professional practice of designing and constructing buildings or environments.

Theory

See: Architectural Theory and Philosophy of Architecture

Philosophy of Architecture

The philosophy of architecture is a branch of the Philosophy of Art, focused on architectural aesthetics, semantics, and cultural development. Philosophers from Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Robert Venturi, and Ludwig Wittgenstein have examined architecture’s nature and its distinction from mere building.

Historic Treatises

  • Vitruvius’s De architectura: Advocates firmitas, utilitas, and venustas—translated as durability, utility, and beauty. The architect should strive for all three.

  • Leon Battista Alberti’s De re aedificatoria: Beauty lies in proportion, based on universal, recognizable truths.

  • Sebastiano Serlio’s Tutte L’Opere D’Architettura et Prospetiva: Catalogued the five architectural orders; practical over theoretical.

  • Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin’s Contrasts: Gothic architecture as the true Christian form; contrasted modern and neo-medieval worlds.

  • John Ruskin’s Seven Lamps of Architecture: Architecture is art that disposes and adorns edifices such that they contribute to mental health, power, and pleasure; aesthetics are paramount.

“Architecture” is distinguished from “construction”: Le Corbusier said, “You employ stone, wood, and concrete… But suddenly you touch my heart… That is Architecture.” Ludwig Mies van der Rohe: “Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together.”

Modern Concepts

  • Form follows function: Louis Sullivan promoted structural and aesthetic considerations subject to functionality.

  • Aesthetics: Remain contested, with critics noting a disconnect between professionals and the public. Preference generally leans to traditional and classical styles.

  • Philosophies influencing modern architecture: Rationalism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Deconstruction, Phenomenology.

  • Sustainability: Includes environmentally friendly building production, material choice, and demands on the environment (e.g., for HVAC, water, waste, lighting).

History

Main: History of Architecture

Origins and Vernacular Architecture

Early settlements were mostly rural, with architecture evolving from needs (shelter, security, worship) and means (materials, skills). As cultures developed, building became a Craft, and architecture a formalized aspect. Architectural success came through trial and error, and Vernacular Architecture continues worldwide.

Prehistoric Architecture

Significant sites:

Classical Era

Highlighted works:

Architecture and urbanism reflected religious and political power. Greek and Roman civilizations, evolving from civic ideals, developed the Classical Orders. Early canons (e.g., Vitruvius’s writings) often had religious applications.

Asian Architecture

Notable examples:

Distinct Buddhist, Hindu, and Sikh styles; Indian and Chinese architectures influenced surrounding regions, while Japanese did not. Buddhist Architecture shows regional diversity. Hindu Temple Architecture is governed by the Shastras and expresses macrocosm/microcosm.

Asian pantheistic religions led to architecture designed to enhance Natural Landscapes, with many historic houses constructed of wood. Buddhism saw a shift to stone and brick structures (Rock-cut Architecture). Early Asian writings: Kao Gong Ji (China), Shilpa Shastras (India), Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra (Sri Lanka), Araniko (Nepal).

Islamic Architecture

Developed from 7th-century Middle Eastern and Byzantine forms to suit religious and social needs, expanding to regions affected by the Ottoman Empire.

European Medieval Architecture

Guilds organized trades—architects often doubled as master masons (Magister lathomorum). Major constructions included cathedrals and abbeys; clerics and tradesmen carried architectural knowledge, resulting in Romanesque and Gothic styles. Fortifications, from the Balkans to Spain and Malta to Estonia, are significant heritage.

Renaissance Architecture

Important works:

Renaissance favored Classical learning and humanism. Architects gained individual recognition, but boundaries between architect, artist, and engineer were blurred. Science and engineering affected building proportions and structure.

Early Modern & Industrial Age

Important styles and buildings:

With advances in science and materials, architects concentrated on aesthetics and the humanist aspect, often at the expense of technical design. Rise of the “gentleman architect” (visual qualities, wealthier clients). École des Beaux-Arts emphasized beautiful drawings over feasibility. The Industrial Revolution led to mass production, and ornamented products became more affordable.

Modernism

Key examples:

Modern architecture began after World War I as an avant-garde movement that developed new styles appropriate for post-war needs. Emphasis was placed on modern materials, geometric forms, and high-rise structures. Disillusionment with modernism led to Postmodern Architecture and Contemporary Architecture. Today, architectural construction covers everything from ship design to interior decoration.

Types

Key Concepts and Elements

Architectural Elements

Design Principles

Historical Movements

See Also

  1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture

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